Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Outbreak Updates !

COVID-19:

This is how Covid-19 is spreading pandemic across the globe ! And with community transmission, Nepal is into the third stage of this pandemic !!

Watching carefully the entire video presents a very interesting and important hidden information how rapidly the virus at first spreads in China, then subsequently to other countries, at the same time how some countries including China were able to control and maintain the rate of spread while others such as Italy not able to and USA making to top !

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Laboratory Diagnosis of Coronavirus (COVID-19) - Rapid Diagnostic Test (RDT)!

COVID-19:

Laboratory methods for diagnosing COVID-19 follow two pathways:

1. Detection of the coronavirus itself, and
2. Detection of the body's adaptive immune response to the virus.

The stage of COVID-19 disease progression determines which detection method is most effective. The rapid diagnostic (RDT) test complements nucleic acid methods such as RT-PCR to improve speed of diagnosis and monitor disease progression. As the disease primarily attacks the lungs, specimens taken from the upper respiratory tract may be poor in quality and could lead to false-negatives with PCR.

To understand the clinical significance of results obtained from the RDT, the following information must be considered:

• The median incubation period is estimated to be 5.1 days.
• Specific IgM antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 become detectable 3-5 days after onset of symptoms.

Therefore, the RDT should not be used until symptoms have been present for at least 3 days.

Check HERE for RDT Details with VIDEO »

Watch the dynamic spread of the global pandemic COVID-19 !

COVID-19:

This is how Covid-19 is spreading pandemic across the globe !

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Watching carefully the entire video presents a very interesting and important hidden information how rapidly the virus at first spreads in China, then subsequently to other countries, at the same time how some countries including China were able to control and maintain the rate of spread while others such as Italy not able to and USA making to top !

WATCH VIDEO »

What are proteins and how much do you need?

Proteins:

Proteins are large molecules that our cells need to function properly. They consist of amino acids. The structure and function of our bodies depend on proteins. The regulation of the body's cells, tissues, and organs cannot happen without them.

Muscles, skin, bones, and other parts of the human body contain significant amounts of protein, including enzymes, hormones, and antibodies.

Proteins also work as neurotransmitters. Hemoglobin, a carrier of oxygen in the blood, is a protein.

What are proteins?

Proteins are long chains of amino acids that form the basis of all life. They are like machines that make all living things, whether viruses, bacteria, butterflies, jellyfish, plants, or human function.

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Hormonal Dysfunction in Male Infertility -Diagnosis and Treatment !

Male Infertility:

Treatment of infertility-related hormonal dysfunction in men requires an understanding of the hormonal basis of spermatogenesis. The best method for accurately determining male androgenization status remains elusive. Treatment of hormonal dysfunction can fall into two categories — empirical and targeted. Empirical therapy refers to experience-based treatment approaches in the absence of an identifiable etiology. Targeted therapy refers to the correction of a specific underlying hormonal abnormality.

Since the first case reports in 1910 of testicular atrophy after canine hypophysectomy, the hormonal basis of human reproduction has been an area of evolving investigation. An array of treatment modalities are available for hormonal dysfunction in the setting of male infertility, but the diagnosis of such dysfunction and its treatment is often empirical, or guided by the clinician's judgement, and can be open to interpretation. Our ability to understand the intra testicular hormonal environment and its effect on spermatogenesis is limited by current methods of routine clinical investigation.

Investigations into female infertility benefit from reliance on objective, verifiable outcomes such as ovulation, biochemical pregnancy, and clinical pregnancy. Meanwhile, the male counterpart has been hampered by the necessary dependence on bulk seminal parameters, which are notoriously poor predictors of fertility potential. Perhaps the only truly reliable semen analysis is one indicating azoospermia and that is where the most exciting clinical outcomes research has focused.

This review article describes and discusses the pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment of fertility-associated male hormonal dysfunction.

• Oestradiol is the principal mediator of negative feedback on the hypothalamic–pituitary axis, which illustrates the influence of selective oestrogen receptor modulators and aromatase inhibitors on male hormonal parameters

• Serum hormonal assays are unreliable indicators of intratesticular androgen levels, and the best approach for determining male androgen status remains elusive

• Follicle-stimulating hormone and inhibin B are markers of spermatogenesis and their relative values in the setting of an intact hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis provide important information about testicular function

• Targeted hormonal therapy corrects specific hormonal dysfunctions, empirical hormonal therapy is employed when no underlying cause is identified and the evidence for empirical therapy is dependent on the type of medication used

• A return of sperm to the ejaculate or successful surgical sperm retrieval among men with azoospermia owing to spermatogenic dysfunction are the most objective indicators of outcomes of hormonal therapy

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How to Increase Laboratory Accuracy with Direct HbA1c Testing !

HbA1c:

Diabetes is a global epidemic affecting in the region of 425 million people according to the International Diabetes Federation. Worryingly, this figure is on the rise with forecasts suggesting diabetes will affect up to 629 million people globally by 2045. Such a dramatic increase highlights the fundamental need for better disease management. When we look at the worldwide prevalence of diabetes, the United States is one of the most prominent countries affected.

HbA1c - an important biomarker for diabetes management and control !

HbA1c, also known as hemoglobin A1c or glycated hemoglobin, is an important blood test used to determine how well diabetes is being controlled. It develops when hemoglobin, a protein within the red blood cells that carries oxygen throughout the body, joins with glucose in the blood, becoming “glycated.” The concentration of HbA1c in the blood of diabetic patients increases with rising blood glucose levels and is representative of the mean blood glucose level over the preceding six to eight weeks. HbA1c can therefore be described as a long-term indicator of diabetic control, unlike blood glucose which is only a short-term indicator of diabetic control. It is recommended that HbA1c levels are monitored every three to four months.

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A Primeview on Sickle Cell Disease !

Primeview:

Sickle cell disease (SCD) is a group of inherited disorders caused by mutations in HBB, which encodes haemoglobin subunit β. Haemoglobin molecules that include mutant sickle β-globin subunits can polymerize; erythrocytes that contain mostly haemoglobin polymers assume a sickled form and are prone to haemolysis. Other pathophysiological mechanisms that contribute to the SCD phenotype are vaso-occlusion and activation of the immune system. SCD is characterized by a remarkable phenotypic complexity. Common acute complications are acute pain events, acute chest syndrome and stroke; chronic complications (including chronic kidney disease) can damage all organs. Hydroxycarbamide, blood transfusions and haematopoietic stem cell transplantation can reduce the severity of the disease. Early diagnosis is crucial to improve survival, and universal newborn screening programmes have been implemented in some countries but are challenging in low-income, high-burden settings.

Sickle cell disease (SCD) is an umbrella term that defines a group of inherited diseases (including sickle cell anaemia (SCA), HbSC and HbSβ-thalassaemia) characterized by mutations in the gene encoding the haemoglobin subunit β (HBB). Haemoglobin (Hb) is a tetrameric protein composed of different combinations of globin subunits; each globin subunit is associated with the cofactor haem, which can carry a molecule of oxygen. Hb is expressed by red blood cells, both reticulocytes (immature red blood cells) and erythrocytes (mature red blood cells). Several genes encode different types of globin proteins, and their various tetrameric combinations generate multiple types of Hb, which are normally expressed at different stages of life — embryonic, fetal and adult. Hb A (HbA), the most abundant (>90%) form of adult Hb, comprises two α-globin subunits (encoded by the duplicated HBA1 and HBA2 genes) and two β-globin subunits.

A single nucleotide substitution in HBB results in the sickle Hb (HbS) allele βS; the mutant protein generated from the βS allele is the sickle β-globin subunit and has an amino acid substitution. Under conditions of deoxygenation (that is, when the Hb is not bound to oxygen), Hb tetramers that include two of these mutant sickle β-globin subunits (that is, HbS) can polymerize and cause the erythrocytes to assume a crescent or sickled shape from which the disease takes its name. Hb tetramers with one sickle β-globin subunit can also polymerize, albeit not as efficiently as HbS. Sickle erythrocytes can lead to recurrent vaso-occlusive episodes that are the hallmark of SCD. SCD is inherited as an autosomal codominant trait; individuals who are heterozygous for the βS allele carry the sickle cell trait (HbAS) but do not have SCD, whereas individuals who are homozygous for the βS allele have SCA. SCA, the most common form of SCD, is a lifelong disease characterized by chronic haemolytic anaemia, unpredictable episodes of pain and widespread organ damage.

This primeview focuses on SCA and aims to balance such remarkable advances with the key major challenges remaining worldwide to improve the prevention and management of this chronic disease and ultimately to discover an affordable cure.

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Clinical Chemistry 8e with Student Consult Access !

Clinical Chemistry 8e, William J. Marshall

William J. Marshall Clinical Chemistry with Student Consult Access, 8th Edition pdf ebook

William J. Marshall Clinical Chemistry 8e - the textbook of choice for students and instructors of clinical chemistry worldwide

William J. Marshall Clinical Chemistry 8e Clinical Chemistry considers what happens to the body's chemistry when affected by disease. Each chapter covers the relevant basic science and effectively applies this to clinical practice. It includes discussion on diagnostic techniques and patient management and makes regular use of case histories to emphasise clinical relevance, summarise chapter key points and to provide a useful starting point for examination revision.......

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